For far too long, people of color (POC) have historically been marginalized in the context of pursuing post-secondary education.
The diverse identities of people of color and their struggles implies greater systemic barriers that hinder their experiences after high school. With the diversity of student voices comes the systemic barriers they face in post-secondary education, and the navigation of immigrants and undocumented students in the same context, providing insight into a niche group of individuals. Academic institutions hold the responsibility of advocating for students of color and their unique struggles through post-secondary education.
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) is the term used to describe the stressors that are introduced in a child’s life which have severing affects into their adulthood. Watt’s et al. (2023) study in the Journal of American College Health titled “Adverse childhood experiences contribute to race/ethnic differences in post-secondary academic performance among college students,” concluded that students who experience ACEs are more likely to face struggles and barriers in their post-secondary education.
“Research suggests that racially/ethnically minoritized students may come to college less academically prepared than necessary and in addition, have to navigate an unfamiliar, often unwelcoming, and predominately White culture (Watt et al. 1844).
The study describes students of color (SOC) as minoritized as opposed to a ‘minority’ due to seeing their status as a process and not a ‘demographic characteristic.’ Watt et al. accounts for SOC experiences being affected by trauma during their upbringing, not simply because of what they call a disproportionate lack of social capital, which accounts for financial resources, connections and more. Watt et al. used the data of 404 SOC from Texas State University to see the trends in their experiences in post-secondary education, as well as how this reflects on their academic status.
The study had students who ranged between ages 18-47. Of those participants, 43% identified as non-Hispanic, 43% as Hispanic, 9% as Black and 5% as Other Race/Ethnicity. Other questions were asked of the students surveyed, such as GPA and if they have a parent who has a degree, all important factors to consider in researching the academic and social trends. 60.1% had a parent with a college degree which majorly percentages were representative of 43% of individuals who identified as non-Hispanic and above the age of 25.
“These investigations point to, among other things, a cultural disconnect between the experiences of Students of Color and the institutional habitus they encounter. This is understandable as higher education has historically been a White, middle-upper class subculture,” (Watt et al. 1850).
SOC that fall under these demographics were more likely to come from low-income households and lower quality schools which also introduces the lack of resources and college preparation and resources to assist once they begin their first year of college. 73.7% of those surveyed by Watt et al. reported one or more ACEs. The study found that lower GPA scores were associated with a higher level of ACEs.
At Predominately White Institutions (PWIs), White students are more likely to graduate, putting them at an overall 60% graduation rate in comparison to Latino students who have a 50% graduation rate and African American students, who have a 40% graduate rate. What is especially concerning is that Latino students are still likely to drop-out, even at a Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs). These statistics are representative of the fact that SOC are more likely to being post-secondary education with less academic preparation (Watt et al. 1845). SOC statistically have lower math and reading scores, therefore entering their first semester of college with lower ACT and GPA scores.
SOC who are the first in their family to attend college (First-generation students) and come from low-income backgrounds were more likely to have ACEs. The study describes the effects of children having ACEs as a chain reaction. For example, children in lower-income households are more likely to attend lower quality schools which impacts their access to educational and financial resources, making them more likely to perform poorly in academics. They may have less college preparation and combining this with less access to scholarships significantly decreases their chance of college admission. In the chance of being admitted into college, their ACEs make them more susceptible to poor academic performance, drop-out rates and mental health conditions such as anxiety and depression (Watt Et al. 1850).
Some limitations that pertain to the survey conducted at the University of Texas include more female respondents as opposed to male, a smaller percentage of Black student respondents, and a self-reporting system of ACEs.
This research brings light to the gap in SOC attending post-secondary education which is mostly caused by upbringing. However, the study includes the argument of the lack of institutional resources for SOC who face these barriers, such as a lack of mental health resources. SOC are less likely to use the resources their schools do provide because services “often are over-burdened, offer a narrow treatment protocol and typically do not provide trauma services specifically” (Watt et al. 1851).
There is also a lack of connection SOC experience from the rest of campus culture due to their unique experiences and upbringings. The question is, how do we address this demographic of students who disproportionately face these barriers as opposed to their peers?
In Jackson A. Collins and Howard C. Stevenson’s 2023 study entitled, “Racial climate reform in independent schools: How coping self‐efficacy buffers systemic and proximal racial stress for students of color,” analyzes the stressors for SOC in post-secondary education and how academic programs tailored for SOC before entering a Predominately White Institution (PWI) helps them navigate the racial politics associated their identity.
Collins and Stevenson introduce us to the acronym DRE, which stands for Discriminatory Racial Encounters in the context of students who experience and report them to teachers. The research studies the ways in which these experiences fall victim to the dismissal of the institution.
“This avoidance, if repetitive, represents a form of professional incompetence and if left unaddressed will institutionalize “racial paralysis” as a coping strategy. This can create a suboptimal learning atmosphere, particularly for SOC” (Collins and Stevenson 4428).
A lack of acknowledgment in SOC struggles makes them more likely to be aware of their racial identity and therefore notice microaggressions and systemic barriers in post-secondary education. However, an obvious remedy to this is cultural connections on campus and a sense of belonging not only socially but also through institutional support. (Bottiani et al. 4429).
Racial literacy can be defined as the education and awareness of social and systemic struggles people go through based on their racial and ethnic background. It is the understanding and discussion of the concept of race and racism. This kind of instruction not only applies to students but adults in education as well, which includes staff and faculty. It is an overall awareness of how individuals go through different experiences due to their racial or ethnic background.
“Racial literacy practice can help prepare individuals and institutions to not only manage their threat‐based reactions to racial injustice but make socially just decisions as well,” (Collins and Stevenson 4430).
There is nuance in admitting public school students into private PWIs as they may ‘not match the academic rigor of private school curricula’ (Collins and Stevenson). This would cause them to not be consistent in their post-secondary experience, possibly causing them to drop out, in turn reinforcing harmful stereotypes of their community.
“Although student diversity has grown nationally, racial diversity demographic deficits abound among teachers, division heads, heads of school, trustees and sponsors” (Collins and Stevenson 4430).
Racial Encounters (RE) influence the stress that SOC face at PWIs. There is nuance in SOC experiences due to the diversity in student backgrounds. Some SOC may be more prepared to cope with racial hostility than others (Collins and Stevenson).
Andrea Briceno‑Mosquera’s 2024 study titled, “Learning, Compliance, and Psychological Burdens When Undocumented Immigrants Claim In-State Tuition Policy,” researched the trends that are seen when undocumented students are benefit from in-state tuition, as some states in the U.S. allow, yet still face systemic barriers during their academic endeavors. This sheds light on the influence of state policy, political leanings, and the overall experience of these students in post-secondary education.
The pathway to college is never a straightforward one. There is no ‘default’ college experience as students come from different backgrounds, cultures, ethnicities and hold diverse life experiences. Immigrants have historically been outcasted and dehumanized both socially and legally due a lack of legal status in the U.S. Immigrant students may also face these struggles in their places of education. A subgroup of immigrants are undocumented immigrants, who have very specific legal barriers in pursuing opportunities such as post-secondary education.
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) is a government program for individuals who came to the U.S. as children. The program grants a temporary protection from deportation, providing recipients with the right to obtain a driver’s license and work permit in the U.S. Although this is a federal program that has granted thousands of immigrants who came to the U.S. as children with legal protections, there are thousands of undocumented students whose applications were never processed due to the Trump administration ending the program in 2020, causing thousands of new applications, approximately 8,000 at that time, to not be considered (Briceno-Mosquera 233). This, along with several federal judges’ ruling DACA as unlawful spiking thereafter a unique generation of college students pursuing higher education many of whom have now entered post-secondary education without any type of legal status, leaving legislation regarding eligibility to in-state tuition up to each state.
“While the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program allows certain undocumented immigrants to benefit from a renewable two-year lawful residency—including a temporary Social Security number, it does not guarantee access to higher education. Substantial differences have emerged in the ease of addressing relative application burdens between undocumented DACA recipients and those who are not” (Briceno-Mosquera 235).
Undocumented students, both including DACA and non-DACA recipients make up for 427,000 of students. This is 2% of students enrolled in universities in the U.S. (Briceno-Mosquera 233). This rate of admitting students with a lack of legal support and protections is concerning considering it takes a lot to be admitted into college and having access to recourses during their education.
“Meeting college admissions requirements may be burdensome to some degree for everyone interested in pursuing postsecondary education. Still, these may be particularly distressing for undocumented youth because the majority are first-generation college students, live below the federal poverty level, have fewer resources and support networks, and typically have less knowledge of their rights than many of their U.S.- born counterparts” (Briceno-Mosquera 235).
Even in the possibility of being admitted into an academic institution (policies admitting/giving aid to undocumented students varies state by state), undocumented students still hold unique barriers and challenges that pertain to their identity. A lack of financial and academic support may be present, along with undocumented students being unknowledgeable of their basic rights. So, how should universities approach the diversity of their student body?
“Although federal law does not restrict undocumented students’ access to college, federal law prevents undocumented immigrants from federal financial aid benefits. That fact is problematic for a population needing financial assistance to access higher education. Between 2001 and 2021, however, in efforts to extend undocumented students’ access to higher education, 18 states passed legislation granting In-State Resident Tuition (ISRT) eligibility to undocumented students attending public colleges and universities” (Briceno-Mosquera 233).
Roberta Suzette Hunte et al. 2024 study at Portland State University titled ““What Keeps Me in School”: Oregon BIPOC Learners Voice Support That Makes Higher Education Possible” researched the trends that Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) face as they navigate post-secondary education. The study analyzed the ways in which economic, social/cultural, and institutional support for BIPOC students immensely support their pathway and success in post-secondary education.
There is a growing number of BIPOC students perusing higher education, but even then, battle with institutionalized racism. There are many perspectives and experiences to consider, many of which include students who are currently enrolled in college, those that enrolled and dropped out, and those that never even considered enrolling.
Fostering relationships and building connections both during and after college are ways in which students can advocate for themselves and build spaces within their peers to feel welcome. At the institutional level, there is much nuance due to both private and public universities being heavily influenced by state policies and legislation. However, there are support systems that academic institutions may offer to the diverse groups and subgroups of their student body. These resources include but are not limited to institutional scholarships for marginalized communities who would not otherwise be able to attend college, accessible and specific mental health services, community and cultural support groups on campus and other proactive solutions that measure involvement and academic retention in higher education. Regardless, there are limitations to research that is done to support. Not all students, no matter how much support they receive, will have post-secondary education in their plans. Many may choose alternative life and career choices that may not be representative of the majority of situations and experiences made up of SOC. So, what is it that keeps SOC in school? Why is it important they are represented in higher education? The answer to these questions is not absolute. There are many ways to remedy the lack of support and representation in academic institutions, but it would require the work of students alongside the people that serve them. It is a mutual effort and, if made possible, can pave pathways for future students of color with diverse backgrounds into higher education.
The research conducted to write this Viewfinder story was brought to you by the honors thesis of the author. A special thanks to Dr. Amy Getty from the English and Honors department for her guidance on this project that made it to GV RISE.
